Geologic Structures
Types of geologic structures:
(1) Primary structures: those which develop at the time of
formation of the rocks (e.g. sedimentary structures, some volcanic structures,
.... etc.).
(2) Secondary structures: which are those that develop in rocks
after their formation as a result of their subjection to external forces.
(3) Compound structures: form by a combination of events some of
which are contemporaneous with the formation of a group of rocks taking part in
these "structures".
Stress: is the force applied over a given area of
the rock mass. It is of three different kinds:
(1) Compressional stress which tends to
squeeze the rock
(2) Tensional stress, which tends to pull a
rock apart
(3) Shear stress, which results from
parallel forces that act on different parts of the rock body in opposite
directions.
Strain: Is the change in the shape or size of a
rock in response to stress. A rock is said to deform elastically if it can return to its original size once the stress
is removed. Plastic deformation on
the other hand, results in permanent changes in the size and shape of the rock,
even after the stress is removed. Plastic deformation of a rock is also known
as ductile deformation. After
deforming plastically for some time, a rock which continues to be subjected to
stress may finally break, a behaviour known as brittle deformation.
Factors affecting how a rock
deforms:
1. Depth: Lithostatic pressure + heat
2. Time:
3. Composition
4. Fluids
Therefore, a rock may undergo ductile deformation when
subjected to stress at certain depths within the earth where pressures and
temperatures are relatively high, or if fluids are abundant, but the same rock
may undergo brittle deformation at shallower depths.
Measuring geological
structures:
Strike: (direction)
Dip: (direction & angle)
A- Secondary structures
Types of secondary geologic
structures:
(a) folds,
which are a form of ductile
deformation, and (b) fractures,
represented by faults and joints which generally result from the brittle behaviour of rocks in response
to stress.
I- Folds
Folds are bends or flexures in the earth's crust, and
can therefore be identified by a change in the amount and/or direction of dip
of rock units. Most folds result from the ductile
deformation of rocks when subjected to compressional
or shear stress. In order to
understand and classify folds, we must study their forms and shapes, and be
able to describe them. The following definitions are therefore essential for
the description of a fold:
1- Hinge line:
Is the line of maximum curvature on a folded surface. The hinge line almost
always coincides with the axis of
the fold defined as a line lying in the plane that bisects a fold into two
equal parts.
2- The axial
plane is an imaginary plane dividing the fold into two equal parts known as
limbs. It is therefore the plane
which includes all hinge lines for different beds affected by the same fold.
3- The crest
of a fold can be considered the highest point on a folded surface. The trough is the lowest point on a folded
surface.
4- The interlimb
angle: Is the angle between two limbs of the same fold. It is measured in a
plane perpendicular to that of the fold axis.
5- The angle of
plunge of a fold is the angle between the fold axis and the horizontal
plane, measured in a vertical plane. The direction
of plunge of a fold is the direction in which the fold axis dips into the
ground from the horizontal plane.
6- The median
surface: Is the surface that passes through points where the fold limb
changes its curvature from concave to convex.
7- The amplitude
of a fold: is the vertical distance between the median surface and the fold
hinge, both taken on the same surface of the same folded unit.
8- The wavelength
of a fold system is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs
taken on the same folded surface.
Classification of folds
Folds may be classified based on the direction of dip
of their limbs, the inclination of their axial planes, the value of their
interlimb angle, their plunge, and their general shape and effects on the
thickness of the folded layers. In order to describe a fold correctly, one may
have to use more that one of these classifications; e.g. recumbent anticline,
open syncline, tight plunging anticline, .... etc. (see below).
(a) Classification based on
the direction of dip of the limbs:
When both limbs of a fold dip away from the fold axis,
the fold is called an antiform. If
both limbs dip towards the fold axis, the fold is known as a synform. If the relative ages of the
folded units are known, such that the oldest units occur in the core of the antiform, the antiform is
called "anticline".
Similarly, if the youngest units occur in the "center" of a synformal
structure, it is known as a syncline (Fig.
1).
A monocline
is a single step-like bend in a rock unit, and is often caused by vertical
displacement. A dome consists of
uparched rocks that dip in all directions away from the central point. A basin is a downwarp in which the layers
dip in all directions from all sides towards the centre (Fig. 2). A fold is
described as isoclinal if both limbs
dip in the same direction at the same angle (Fig. 3).
(b) Classification based on
the inclination of the axial plane: (Fig. 4)
A symmetrical
(or upright) fold is one in which the axial plane bisects the fold (and is
vertical). If the axial plane is inclined at an angle < 45° (measured from
the vertical plane), the fold is said to be inclined. If the angle of inclination of the axial plane is >
45° (from the vertical plane), then both limbs of the fold will dip in the same
direction, and the fold is known as inverted
or overturned. If the axial plane is
horizontal, the fold is known as recumbent.
(c) Classification based on
the value of the interlimb angle (Fig. 5):
(1) Open
folds: those with an interlimb angle > 70°, (2) Closed folds: with interlimb angles between 30 and 70°, (3) Tight folds: with interlimb angles <
30°, (4) Isoclinal folds: have zero
interlimb angles.
II- Faults
A fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along
which there has been an observable amount of movement and displacement. Unlike
folds which form predominantly by compressional stress, faults result from
either tension, compression or shear.
In order to correctly describe a fault, it is
essential to understand its components:
1- The fault
plane: Is the plane of dislocation or fracture along which displacement has
occurred. The fault plane therefore separates one or more rock units into two blocks.
2- The Hanging
wall and footwall blocks: If the
fault plane is not vertical, then the block lying on top of the fault plane is
known as the hanging wall block, whereas that lying below this plane is known
as the footwall block.
3- The
downthrown and upthrown blocks:
The downthrown block is the one that has moved downwards relative to the other
block, whereas the upthrown block is that which registers an upward relative
movement.
4- The Dip
of the fault plane is the angle of inclination of the fault plane measured from
the horizontal plane perpendicular to its strike.
6- Fault Throw:
Is the vertical displacement of a fault.
8- Dip slip:
Is the amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the direction of
its dip.
9- Strike slip:
Is the amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the direction of
its strike.
10- Net slip:
Is the total amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the
direction of movement.
N.B. In measuring the slip or throw of a fault, the
displacement has to be measured using the same surface of the same unit
affected by that fault.
Types of Faults
1- Normal
fault: Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved downwards
relative to the footwall (i.e. downthrown block = hanging wall block).
2- Reverse
fault: Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved upwards
relative to the footwall (i.e. upthrown block = hanging wall block). Because
the displacement in both normal and reverse faults occurs along the dip of the
fault plane, they may be considered types of dip slip faults.
3- Thrust fault
(or thrust): Is a reverse fault in which the fault plane is dipping at low
angles (< 45°). Thrusts are very common in mountain chains (fold and thrust
belts) where they are characterized by transporting older rocks on top of
younger ones over long distances.
4- Strike slip
(wrench, tear or transcurrent)
fault: Is a fault in which the movement is horizontal along the strike of the
fault plane. Strike slip faults are either dextral
or sinistral. When viewed on end
(Fig. 13), a dextral fault (also known as right lateral fault) is one in which
the block on the observer's right hand side appears to have moved towards him,
whereas a sinistral strike slip fault (also known as left lateral) is one in
which the block on the observer's left hand side appears to have moved towards
him.
5- Oblique slip
fault: is one in which the displacement was both in the strike and dip
directions (i.e. the displacement has strike and dip components). Keep in mind
that an oblique slip fault can also be either normal or reverse.
From this classification of faults, it can be seen
that normal faults result predominantly from tensional stress, reverse faults
and thrusts from compression (or shear), and strike slip faults from tension,
compression or shear.
Fault Associations and Fault Systems (Fig. 6)
Faults often occur in groups. If two normal faults
have parallel strikes and share the same downthrown block, a trough-like
structure results which is known as a graben.
A horst is an uplifted block bounded
by two normal faults that strike parallel to each other (and which share the
same upthrown block the horst). Grabens and horsts are common
in areas of very early rifting (e.g. the East African Rift Valley). Step faults are several faults with
parallel strikes and a repeated downthrow in the same direction giving the area
an overall step - like appearance. They are common in rifted areas (e.g. on the
flanks of the Red sea).
Geomorphological features associated with faults:
Fault planes often result in the exposure of units
that erode easily along the fault trace resulting in the development of valleys
or the control of stream flow. In other cases, faults cause the offset of
streams, causing them to bend sharply when they intersect the fault plane. The
topography may also be strongly influenced by faulting so that the fault plane
can be identified on the ground by a sudden and sharp change in elevation,
known as a fault scarp.
Recognition of movement along
fault planes
Movement along a fault plane can often be recognized
by the following criteria:
1- Fault drag:
where small - scale folding or warping of units takes place as a result of the
dragging forces along the fault plane (Fig. 7).
2- Fault
breccia and fault gouge: As a result of movement along
the fault plane, rocks are often broken up into sharp angular pieces known as
breccia. The fragments may be further crushed into powder - like material,
known as fault gouge.
3- Slickensides:
As a result of movement and friction along the fault plane, this plane may
become highly polished or abraded with striations that are known as
slickensides (Fig. 8).
III- Joints
Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no
movement along their surfaces. Although most joints are secondary structures,
some are primary, forming at the time of formation of the rocks.
Types of joints
1- Columnar
joints: Are joints that form in basalts. When the basaltic lava cools, it
contracts giving rise to hexagonal shaped columns.
2- Mud cracks:
Are joints that form in mud. As the mud loses its water, it contracts and
cracks.
3- Secondary
joints: Are joints that form in rocks as a result of their subjection to
any form of stress (compression, tension or shear). Joints that are oriented in
one direction approximately parallel to one another make up a joint set. Rocks often have more than
one set of joints with different orientations, which may intersect, and are
then known as joint systems (Fig.
9). Note that tensional stress usually results in one set of joints, whereas
compression may form more than one set.
4- Sheet
joints: Are joints that form in granitic rocks in deserts causing them to
break into thin parallel sheets. These joints form when the rocks expand as a
result of the rapid removal of the overlying rock cover, possibly due to
faulting or quarrying. This process is called exfoliation.
B- Compound Structures
Unconformities
An unconformity is a surface (or contact) along which
there was no fracturing (i.e. not a fault or joint) and which represents a
break in the geologic record. An unconformity therefore indicates a lack of
continuity of sedimentary deposition in an area, resulting in rocks of widely
different ages occurring in contact with each other. Unconformities usually
result from changes in the sedimentary history of an area, which may be due to
vertical movements (e.g. uplift followed by erosion and deposition),
deformation (also followed by deposition), changes in sea level (which may be
due to climatic changes, among other things), ...etc.
In many cases, unconformities represent a buried erosional
surface. In such cases, erosion of the older units results in their
fragmentation into smaller pieces. As soon as deposition resumes, these
fragments may consolidate to form a rock known as breccia (if the fragments are
angular) or conglomerate (if the fragments are rounded). Because the breccia or
conglomerate occur at the base of the younger units lying on top of the
unconformity surface, and because their fragments are derived from the units
below this surface, the conglomerates or breccias are known as basal conglomerates or basal breccias.
Types of unconformities (Fig. 10)
1- Angular
unconformities: are those in which the angle of dip of the younger layers
is different from that of the older ones.
2- Disconformities:
are those in which the units above and below the unconformity surface are
parallel to each other, but not continuous in deposition or age.
3- Nonconformities:
are those in which plutonic or metamorphic rocks are covered by sedimentary or
volcanic units.
Geological Structures and Plate
tectonics:
All three types of plate boundaries are characterized
by certain deformational (structural) features. The most intense deformation
occurs in areas of continent - continent collision.
Divergent
boundaries: Mostly
extensional structures; horsts, grabens, step faults, ... etc.
Convergent
boundaries: "Fold and
thrust belts"; nappes (Fig.
11).
Transform
boundaries: Strike slip
faults, en echelon faults
Mountain building (Orogeny):
Examples:
Andes
Rockies, Himalayas, Alps, Appalachians
Basin & Range: Tetons
Adirondacks
Vertical movements (Epeirogeny/ uplift) and Isostasy.
Epeirogeny is the vertical movement of crustal blocks
relative to sea level in a "non-mountain building" event. The term is
rather vague and is almost obsolete! The simple "non-genetic" term uplift is more useful. Isostasy is the state of balance
between extensive blocks of the earth's crust which rise to different levels
and appear at the surface as mountain ranges, plateaus and plains. Applied to
mountains (where the lighter continental crust overlying the denser mantle is
quite thick), this concept dictates that the higher the mountain, the thicker
the crust beneath it, or the deeper the "crustal root" of that
mountain within the underlying mantle. Because the sialic material is less
dense than sima, the gravitational attraction beneath mountain chains is much
lower than that on the ocean floors (Fig. 12)
Another important effect of isostasy is seen when
material is eroded from a mountain, resulting in the rise of the crust - mantle
boundary (the Moho) to compensate for the eroded material. This process is
known as isostatic readjustment or isostatic rebound (Fig. 13). A good example
of this process can be seen in parts of the Baltics, Arctic and the Great Lakes
Region of North America. During the ice ages, these areas were covered by large
ice caps which depressed the crust by as much as 200 to 300 meters. When the
ice melted, the crust rebounded slowly, as evidenced by the occurrence of beach
deposits at high elevations.
Importance of studying
geologic structures